Отрицатели науки. Как говорить с плоскоземельщиками, антиваксерами и конспирологами

Глава 8. Коронавирус и новые вызовы

Boseley S. Mbeki AIDS Denial ‘Caused 300,000 Deaths’ // The Guardian. 2008. 26 ноября. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/nov/26/aids-south-africa.

Эпидемиологи подсчитали, что около 90 % смертей от ковида в США объясняются бездействием администрации Трампа со 2 по 16 марта. Jarecki E. Trump’s Covid-19 Inaction Killed Americans. Here’s a Counter that Shows How Many // The Washington Post. 2020. 6 мая. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/05/06/trump-covid-death-counter/.

Uscinski J. и др. Why Do People Believe COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories? // Misinformation Review. 2020. 28 апреля. URL: https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/why-do-people-believe-covid-19-conspiracy-theories/.

Lewandowsky S. и др. Coronavirus Conspiracy Theories Are Dangerous – Here’s How to Stop Them Spreading // The Conversation. 2020. 20 апреля. URL: https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-are-dangerous-heres-how-to-stop-them-spreading-136564; Satariano A. и др. Burning Cell Towers, Out of Baseless Fear They Spread the Virus // The New York Times. 2020. 10 апреля. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/10/technology/coronavirus-5g-uk.html; Andrews T.M. Why Dangerous Conspiracy Theories about the Virus Spread So Fast – and How They Can Be Stopped // The Washington Post. 2020. 1 мая. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/05/01/5g-conspiracy-theory-coronavirus-misinformation/.

Rozsa M. We Asked Experts to Respond to the Most Common COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories and Misinformation // Salon. 2020. 18 июля. URL: https://www.salon.com/2020/07/18/we-asked-experts-to-respond-to-the-most-common-covid-19-conspiracy-theories/; Cassam Q. Covid Conspiracies // ABC Saturday Extra. 2020. 16 мая. URL: https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/saturdayextra/covid-conspiracies/12252406.

Broad W.J. и др. Trump Muses about Light as Remedy, but Also Disinfectant, Which Is Dangerous // The New York Times. 2020. 24 апреля. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/24/health/sunlight-coronavirus-trump.html.

Borba M.G.S. и др. Chloroquine Diphosphate in Two Different Dosages As Adjunctive Therapy of Hospitalized Patients with Severe Respiratory Syndrome in the Context of Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) infection: Preliminary Safety Results of a Randomized, Double-Blinded, Phase IIb Clinical Trial (CloroCovid-19 Study) // medRxiv. 2020. 16 апреля. URL: https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.04.07.20056424v2; Funke-Brentano C. и др. Retraction and Republication: Cardiac Toxicity of Hydroxychloroquine in COVID-19 // Lancet. 2020. № 396 (10245). URL: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7347305/; Thomas K. и др. Small Chloroquine Study Halted over Risk of Fatal Heart Complications // The New York Times. 2020. 12 апреля. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/12/health/chloroquine-coronavirus-trump.html; Samuels E. и др. How False Hope Spread about Hydroxychloroquine to Treat COVID-19 – and the Consequences That Followed // The Washington Post. 2020. 13 апреля. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2020/04/13/how-false-hope-spread-about-hydroxychloroquine-its-consequences/; Farhi P. и др. Fox News Goes Mum on the COVID-19 Drug They Spent Weeks Promoting // The Washington Post. 2020. 23 апреля. URL; https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/media/fox-news-hosts-go-mum-on-hydroxychloroquine-the-covid-19-drug-they-spent-weeks-promoting/2020/04/22/eeaf90c2-84ac-11ea-ae26-989cfce1c7c7_story.html.

Olewe D. Stella Immanuel – the Doctor behind Unproven Coronavirus Cure Claim // BBC News. 2020. 29 июля. URL: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53579773.

Sullivan M. This Was the Week America Lost the War on Misinformation // The Washington Post. 2020. 30 июля. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/media/this-was-the-week-america-lost-the-war-on-misinformation/2020/07/30/d8359e2e-d257-11ea-9038-af089b63ac21_story.html.

Collinson S. Trump Seeks a ‘Miracle’ as Virus Fears Mount // CNN. 2020. 28 февраля. URL: https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/28/politics/donald-trump-coronavirus-miracle-stock-markets/index.html.

Рассмотрим аналогию: если мы увеличим улов лишь за счет того, что поставим больше сетей, количество рыбы в каждой сети не вырастет, хотя вырастет общее. Но происходит не это. И сетей мы ставим больше, и в каждую сеть попадет больше рыбы.

Правоконсервативная печать сыграла ключевую роль в распространении дезинформации о коронавирусе. Согласно опросу, проведенному гарвардской Школой управления имени Кеннеди, зрители канала Fox News значительно более других склонны недооценивать опасность ковида, потому что такое отношение демонстрируют ведущие популярных передач этого канала. Sullivan M. The Data Is In: Fox News May Have Kept Millions from Taking the Coronavirus Threat Seriously // The Washington Post. 2020. 28 июня. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/media/the-data-is-in-fox-news-may-have-kept-millions-from-taking-the-coronavirus-threat-seriously/2020/06/26/60d88aa2-b7c3-11ea-a8da-693df3d7674a_story.html. Более сфокусированный анализ показал даже корреляцию между программированием эфира на этом канале и заболеваемостью и смертностью от ковида. Beauchamp Z. A Disturbing New Study Suggests Sean Hannity’s Show Helped Spread the Coronavirus // Vox. 2020. 22 апреля. URL: https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2020/4/22/21229360/coronavirus-covid-19-fox-news-sean-hannity-misinformation-death.

Diamond D. и др. Trump Team Failed to Follow NSC’s Pandemic Playbook // Politico. 2020. 25 марта. URL: https://www.politico.com/news/2020/03/25/trump-coronavirus-national-security-council-149285.

LaFraniere S. и др. Scientists Worry About Political Influence over Coronavirus Vaccine Project // The New York Times. 2020. 2 августа. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/02/us/politics/coronavirus-vaccine.html.

Bogel-Burroughs N. Antivaccination Activists Are Growing Force at Virus Protests // The New York Times. 2020. 2 мая. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/02/us/anti-vaxxers-coronavirus-protests.html.

Szabo L. The Anti-vaccine and Anti-lockdown Movements Are Converging, Refusing to Be ‘Enslaved’ // Los Angeles Times. 2020. 24 апреля. URL: https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020-04-24/anti-vaccine-activists-latch-onto-coronavirus-to-bolster-their-movement.

Reynolds E. Some Anti-vaxxers Are Changing Their Minds Because of the Coronavirus Pandemic // CNN. 2020. 20 апреля. URL: https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/20/health/anti-vaxxers-coronavirus-intl/index.html; Henley J. Coronavirus Causing Some Anti-vaxxers to Waver, Experts Say // The Guardian. 2020. 21 апреля. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/21/anti-vaccination-community-divided-how-respond-to-coronavirus-pandemic; Waldersee V. Could the New Coronavirus Weaken ‘Anti-vaxxers’? // Reuters. 2020. 11 апреля. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-antivax/could-the-new-coronavirus-weaken-anti-vaxxers-idUSKCN21T089.

Kramer A.E. Russia Sets Mass Vaccinations for October After Shortened Trial // The New York Times. 2020. 2 августа. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/02/world/europe/russia-trials-vaccine-October.html.

Neergaard L. и др. AP-NORC Poll: Half of Americans Would Get a COVID-19 Vaccine // AP News. 2020. 27 мая. URL: https://apnews.com/dacdc8bc428dd4df6511bfa259cfec44.

Sparks S. и др. 27 % Unlikely to Be Vaccinated against the Coronavirus; Republicans, Conservatives Especially: POLL // ABC News. 2020. 2 июня. URL: https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/27-vaccinated-coronavirus-republicans-conservatives-poll/story?id=70962377.

Falconer R. Fauci: Coronavirus Vaccine May Not Be Enough to Achieve Herd Immunity in the U.S. // Axios. 2020. 29 июня. URL: https://www.axios.com/fauci-coronavirus-vaccine-herd-immunity-unlikely-023151cc-086d-400b-a416-2f561eb9a7fa.html.

Fernandez M. Conservatives Fuel Protests Against Coronavirus Lock-downs // The New York Times. 2020. 18 апреля. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/18/us/texas-protests-stay-at-home.html; Wilson J. и др. Revealed: Major Anti-lockdown Group’s Links to America’s Far Right // The Guardian. 2020. 8 мая. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/08/lockdown-groups-far-right-links-coronavirus-protests-american-revolution.

Todd C. и др. The Gender Gap between Trump and Biden Has Turned into a Gender Canyon // NBC News. 2020. 8 июня. URL: https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/meet-the-press/gender-gap-between-trump-biden-has-turned-gender-canyon-n1227261.

MacFarquhar N. Who’s Enforcing Mask Rules? Often Retail Workers, and They’re Getting Hurt // The New York Times. 2020. 15 мая. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/15/us/coronavirus-masks-violence.html; Hutchinson B. ‘Incomprehensible’: Confrontations over Masks Erupt amid COVID-19 Crisis // ABC News. 2020. 7 мая. URL: https://abcnews.go.com/US/incomprehensible-confrontations-masks-erupt-amid-covid 19-crisis/story?id=70494577.

Yoder K. Russian Trolls Shared Some Truly Terrible Climate Change Memes // Grist. 2018. 1 мая. URL: https://grist.org/article/russian-trolls-shared-some-truly-terrible-climate-change-memes/; Timberg C. и др. These Provocative Images Show Russian Trolls Sought to Inflame Debate over Climate Change, Fracking and Dakota Pipeline // The Washington Post. 2018. 1 марта. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2018/03/01/congress-russians-trolls-sought-to-inflame-u-s-debate-on-climate-change-fracking-and-dakota-pipeline/; Leber R. и др. 7 Years Before Russia Hacked the Election, Someone Did the Same Thing to Climate Scientists // Mother Jones. 2018. Январь-февраль. URL: https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2017/12/climategate-wikileaks-russia-trump-hacking/.

Johnson C.Y. Russian Trolls and Twitter Bots Exploit Vaccine Controversy // The Washington Post. 2018. 23 августа. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2018/08/23/russian-trolls-twitter-bots-exploit-vaccine-controversy/; Glenza J. Russian Trolls ‘Spreading Discord’ over Vaccine Safety Online // The Guardian. 2018. 23 августа. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/aug/23/russian-trolls-spread-vaccine-misinformation-on-twitter.

Eller D. Anti-GMO Articles Tied to Russian Sites, ISU Research Shows // Des Moines Register. 2018. 25 февраля. URL: https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/money/agriculture/2018/02/25/russia-seeks-influence-usa-opinion-gmos-iowa-state-research/308338002/; Cremer J. Russia Uses ‘Information Warfare’ to Portray GMOs Negatively // Cornell Alliance for Science. 2018. 28 февраля. URL: 2018, https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2018/02/russia-uses-information-warfare-portray-gmos-negatively/.

Emmott R. Russia Deploying Coronavirus Disinformation to Sow Panic in West, EU Document Shows // Reuters. 2020. 18 марта. URL: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-disinformation/russia-deploying-coronavirus-disinformation-to-sow-panic-in-west-eu-document-says-idUSKBN21518F.

Kim A. Nearly Half of the Twitter Accounts Discussing ‘Reopening America’ May Be Bots, Researchers Say // CNN. 2020. 22 мая. URL: https://www.cnn.com/2020/05/22/tech/twitter-bots-trnd/index.html.

Tucker E. US Officials: Russia behind Spread of Virus Disinformation // AP News. 2020. 28 июля. URL: https://apnews.com/3acb089e6a333e051dbc4a465cb68ee1.

The Coronavirus Gives Russia and China Another Opportunity to Spread Their Disinformation // The Washington Post. 2020. 29 марта. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-coronavirus-gives-russia-and-china-another-opportunity-to-spread-their-disinformation/2020/03/29/8423a0f8-6d4c-11ea-a3ec-70d7479d83f0_story.html; Wong E. и др. Chinese Agents Spread Messages That Sowed Virus Panic in U.S., Officials Say // The New York Times. 2020. 22 апреля. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/22/us/politics/coronavirus-china-disinformation.html.

Milman O. Revealed: Quarter of All Tweets about Climate Crisis Produced by Bots // The Guardian. 2020. 21 февраля. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/feb/21/climate-tweets-twitter-bots-analysis; Bort R. Study: Bots Are Fueling Online Climate Denialism // Rolling Stone. 2020. 21 февраля. URL: https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/bots-fueling-climate-science-denialism-twitter-956335/.

Хочет ли Цукерберг сделать Facebook «истиной в последней инстанции» или нет, столько людей получают новости с его сайта, что фактически это, пожалуй, уже так. Levy S. Mark Zuckerberg Is an Arbiter of Truth – Whether He Likes It or Not // Wired. 2020. 5 июня. URL: https://www.wired.com/story/mark-zuckerberg-is-an-arbiter-of-truth-whether-he-likes-it-or-not/.

Romm T. Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg Says in Interview He Fears ‘Erosion of Truth’ but Defends Allowing Politicians to Lie in Ads // The Washington Post. 2019. 17 октября. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/10/17/facebook-ceo-mark-zuckerberg-says-interview-he-fears-erosion-truth-defends-allowing-politicians-lie-ads/.

Timberg C. и др. Facebook’s Fact-Checkers Have Ruled Claims in Trump’s Ads Are False – but No One Is Telling Facebook’s Users // The Washington Post. 2020. 5 августа. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/08/05/trump-facebook-ads-false/.

Murdock J. Most COVID-19 Misinformation Originates on Facebook, Research Suggests // Newsweek. 2020. 6 июля. URL: https://www.newsweek.com/facebook-covid19-coronavirus-misinformation-twitter-youtube-whatsapp-1515642.

Kelly H. Facebook, Twitter Penalize Trump for Posts Containing Coronavirus Misinformation // The Washington Post. 2020. 7 августа. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/08/05/trump-post-removed-facebook/.

Kantrowitz A. Facebook Is Taking Down Posts That Cause Imminent Harm – but Not Posts That Cause Inevitable Harm // BuzzFeed News. 2020. 3 мая. URL: https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/alexkantrowitz/facebook-coronavirus-misinformation-takedowns.

Twitter to Label Misinformation about Coronavirus amid Flood of False Claims and Conspiracy Theories // CBS News. 2020. 13 мая. URL: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/twitter-misinformation-disputed-tweets-claims-coronavirus/.

Timberg C. и др. Tech Firms Take a Hard Line against Coronavirus Myths. But What about Other Types of Misinformation? // The Washington Post. 2020. 28 февраля. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/28/facebook-twitter-amazon-misinformation-coronavirus/.

Segalov M. The Parallels between Corornavirus and Climate Crisis Are Obvious // The Guardian. 2020. 4 мая. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/may/04/parallels-climate-coronavirus-obvious-emily-atkin-pandemic; Gardner B. Coronavirus Holds Key Lessons on How to Fight Climate Change // Yale Environment 360. 2020. 23 марта. URL: https://e360.yale.edu/features/coronavirus-holds-key-lessons-on-how-to-fight-climate-change.

Levin B. Texas Lt. Governor: Old People Should Volunteer to Die to Save the Economy // The Washington Post. 2020. 24 марта. URL: https://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/2020/04/18/sally-jenkins-trump-coronavirus-testing-economy/; Levin B. Texas Lt. Governor: Old People Should Volunteer to Die to Save the Economy // Vanity Fair. 2020. 24 марта. URL: https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2020/03/dan-patrick-coronavirus-grandparents.

Джон Керри приводит возражение: борьба с потеплением не требует от нас сворачивания экономики, напротив, она создаст новые рабочие места и инфраструктуру для развития обновленной экономики, построенной на принципах чистой энергии. Beals R.K. COVID-19 and Climate Change: ‘The Parallels Are Screaming at Us,’ Says John Kerry // Market Watch. 2020. 22 апреля. URL: https://www.marketwatch.com/story/covid-19-and-climate-change-the-parallels-are-screaming-at-us-says-john-kerry-2020-04-22.

Krugman P. COVID-19 Brings Out All the Usual Zombies // The New York Times. 2020. 28 марта. URL: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/28/opinion/coronavirus-trump-response.html.

Более детальный взгляд на то, какие параллели выстраиваются вокруг этих пяти ступеней, см. в работе Lewandowsky и Cook, использующей данные Yale Climate Connections: Lewandowsky S. и др. Coronavirus Conspiracy Theories Are Dangerous – Here’s How to Stop Them Spreading // The Conversation. 2020. 20 апреля. URL: https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-are-dangerous-heres-how-to-stop-them-spreading-136564.

Gardiner B. Coronavirus Holds Key Lessons // Yale Environment 360. 2020. 23 марта. URL: https://e360.yale.edu/features/coronavirus-holds-key-lessons-on-how-to-fight-climate-change.

Sykes C. Did Trump and Kushner Ignore Blue State COVID-19 Testing as Deaths Spiked? // NBC News. 2020. 4 августа. URL: https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/did-trump-kushner-ignore-blue-state-covid-19-testing-deaths-ncna1235707.

Barrow B. и др. Coronavirus’ Spread in GOP Territory, Explained in Six Charts // AP News. 2020. 30 тюня. URL: https://apnews.com/7aa2fcf7955333834e01a7f9217c77d2.

Lewandowsky S. и др. Motivated Rejection of Science // Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2016. № 25 (4). С. 217–222. URL: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0963721416654436?journalCode=cdpa; Van der Linden S. и др. Gateway Illusion or Cultural Cognition Confusion // Journal of Science Communication. 2017. № 16 (5). URL: https://jcom.sissa.it/archive/16/05/JCOM_1605_2017_A04.

Nuccitelli D. Research Shows That Certain Facts Can Still Change Conservatives’ Minds // The Guardian. 2017. 14 декабря. URL: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-per-cent/2017/dec/14/research-shows-that-certain-facts-can-still-change-conservatives-minds.